Ethical Health Care Issues Essay

Healthcare ethics involves making well researched and considerate decisions about medical treatments, while taking into consideration a patient’s beliefs and wishes regarding all aspects of their health. The healthcare industry, above any other, has a high regard for the issues surrounding the welfare of their patients. This power over a patient’s wellbeing creates a mandatory need for all healthcare organizations to develop an ethics committee. The committee’s goal is to establish a written code of ethics that details the policies and procedures that determine proper conduct for all employees. There are many ethical issues that may arise in regards to a patient’s healthcare. Treating patients with certain religious beliefs pose important ethical issues in the field of healthcare. This paper will describe an ethical health care issue concerning refusal of care, such as a blood transfusion. It will cover the four ethical principles as they apply to healthcare providers and patients’ rights. It is important that health care workers have a rudimentary understanding of Jehovah’s Witnesses philosophy about blood transfusion so that as professionals we can be proactive in their management. Ethical Health Care Issue In all areas of practice, physicians come into contact with Jehovah’s Witnesses and their refusal to accept blood transfusion, even when it means saving their lives. The Jehovah’s Witness faith creates some challenges for physicians caring for its members. The ethical principles of autonomy versus beneficence come into conflict when a physician believes a transfusion is in the best interest of the patient, but the patient refuses. Legal precedence provides a backdrop. In addition, Panico, Jenq, & Brewster (2011) article states, there was a case involving a woman who had consented for examination of a fibroid tumor under anesthesia, but withheld consent for removal of the  tumor. While sedated, she underwent resection of the tumor that led to complications. She sued and the judge ruled in her favor, establishing the notion that every human being should have the right to decide what is done with his or her own body. Moreover, this premise gave any individual the right t o refuse treatment if he or she understands the risks; a Jehovah’s Witness has the right to refuse a blood transfusion. This ruling set a precedent for informed consent. In 1990, the Canadian case of Malette v Shulman described an emergency department physician who gave a blood transfusion to an unconscious patient who was in hypovolemic shock. Per report, the patient had a signed wallet card that identified her as a Jehovah’s Witness, although it was undated and unwitnessed. The wallet card, is considered a legal document which, stated that she did not want to receive a blood transfusion under any circumstances (Lantos, Matlock, & Wendler, 2011). Furthermore, when the patient’s daughter arrived and asked that the transfusion be stopped, the physician did not comply. The physician argued that there was no way of knowing if the patient had changed her mind in the minutes before the car accident and thus he was duty bound to save her life (Lantos, Matlock, & Wendler, 2011). The court found the physician guilty of battery. Although it is easy to draw on emotion to argue against the ruling in this case, the verdict has not been overturned. This case illustrates the current teaching to today’s physicians, who are taught to respect patient’s autonomy and preferences for their own bodies (Lantos, Matlock, & Wendler, 2011). Jehovah’s Witness have been known to refuse transfusions with packed red blood cells to treat their life-threatening diseases. Medical professionals must consider patient has autonomy of thought, intention, and action when making decisions regarding health care procedures. To comply with patient’s wishes medical professionals could offer fresh frozen plasma and platelets as an alternative. Furthermore, Jehovah’s Witnesses number over one million in the United States and at least six million worldwide. Witnesses believe in strict and literal interpretation of the Bible, which leads them to reject some aspects of modern medical care (Doyle, 2002). Medical professionals have discussed in open forums ethical decisions they are required to make while taking care of a dying patient who refused to accept a blood transfusion. Data suggests they struggled to relate to someone who would take some blood products, but  not others, and who are willing to risk death over a red blood cell transfusion. Refusal of blood transfusions became common practice only after a 1945 church decision (Mann, Votto, & Kambe, 1992). Indeed, Jehovah’s Witnesses interpret these sections of the Bible differently and if a member accepts blood into their veins, they are shunned and forfeit their membership in the faith community and eternal life. The society had enforced shunning and social isolation by Witnesses’ own family members, relatives, and friends, ultimately leading to expulsion from the religion (Doyle, 2002). Similarly, research suggest that the health care provider must consider four main areas when evaluating justice and the four areas are fair distribution of scarce resources, competing needs, rights and obligations, and potential conflicts with established legislation (Gillon, 1994). In considering the many ethical dilemmas associated with Jehovah’s Witnesses and their refusal to accept blood transfusion have medical professionals focusing on the ways in which treatments or interventions violates accepted norms of conduct of social science research. Physicians must be aware of the growing diversity of values and beliefs among Jehovah’s Witnesses. Some of the most intractable ethical problems arise from conflicts among principles and the necessity of trading one off against the other. The balancing of such principles in concrete situations is the ultimate ethical act (House, 1993, p. 168). Evaluation involves at least four levels of social-political interaction- with government and other agency policy makers who commission evaluation. Evaluation has to operate in this multilayered context of different interests, providing information to inform decisions while remaining independent of the policies and programs themselves (House, 1993, p. 170). More importantly, the weight of ethical judgment is thus put on experimental research to justify meeting ethical standards (Panico, Jenq, & Brewster, 2011). Resource allocation is a major issue that physicians are confronted with when dealing with Jehovah’s Witness allocation. Beneficence requires that the procedure be provided with the intent of doing good for the patient involved. As described above if a patient refuses a blood transfusion and opt for an alternative procedure that costs more it can prove problematic (Panico, Jenq, & Brewster, 2011). When society thinks of the greater good, this argument poses a challenge to the principles of patient autonomy that we also value. In a society in which medical resources  are costly, benefits will always need to be weighed against the potential cost to both the patient and society thus creating ethical challenges. Finally, the care of a Jehovah’s Witness with life threatening illnesses requires a multidisciplinary and planned approach. These patients suffer with certain diseases and are often anemic and must be prepared to deal with this issue in both outpatient settings and during an acute crisis. Clinicians must view each patient as an individual who may have varying thoughts about transfusions of the multiple different blood products that are available. Therefore, medical practices today need to continue to open early lines of communication with these patients. Providing adequate information and educating the patient about realities and obtaining informed consent before subjecting a patient to any test, procedure, or surgery is very essential. It is vital to the optimal care of a Jehovah’s Witness patient. It is necessary that dialysis unit nurses and social workers have conversations with patients about their beliefs on blood products. Discussing a patient’s wishes, understanding their basis for these decisions, and discussing risks, benefits, and alternatives that can be used in both emergent and non-emergent situations is crucial to preparing for more urgent situations, when these conversations often are not possible. Conclusions To many Jehovah’s Witnesses, the consequences of accepting a blood transfusion can be worse than death itself. Not every Jehovah’s Witness patient abides by the same beliefs regarding the acceptance of blood products. These patients can be managed through careful planning and open lines of communication between physicians and patients. Understanding the premise behind the beliefs of patients who are Jehovah’s Witnesses is critical to beginning conversations and truly understanding the patient. Ultimately, when a patient establishes what they will accept, as clinicians, ethically we must optimize the care we provide within their wishes about blood products. Frequent and open dialogue is essential for enhancing care for a Jehovah’s Witness. As an alternative to violating a patient’s autonomy some physicians and some hospitals are more comfortable with bloodless procedures and patients can be referred to these centers if necessary for specialty care. Overall, health care professionals should be able to provide  ethical health care to patients who are Jehovah’s Witnesses at any hospital or community office, but must continue to be educated and aware of their beliefs and respect their wishes and the impact these may have on organizing and providing their care. If these considerations are neglected one can surely expect ethical breaches or dilemmas as inevitable. References Doyle D. Blood transfusions and the Jehovah’s Witness patient. Am J Ther. 2002;9(5):417–424. Gillon, R. (1994). Informed consent: an ethical obligation or legal compulsion. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2840885/ House, R. (1993). Ethics in evaluation. Retrieved from http://www.uk.sagepub.com/gray3e/study/chapter12/Book%20chapters/Ethics_in_Evaluation.pdf:168-170. Lantos J, Matlock A, Wendler D. Clinician integrity and limits to patient autonomy. JAMA.2011;305(5):495–499. (Lantos, Matlock, & Wendler, 2011). Mann M, Votto J, Kambe J, McNamee M. Management of the severely anemic patient who refuses transfusion: lessons learned during the care of the Jehovah’s Witness. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117(12):1042–1048. Panico, M. L., Jenq, G. Y., & Brewster, U. C. (2011). When a patient refuses life-saving care. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 58(4), 647-653.

Project Management on World Trade Organization ministerial Conference of 2005

Executive Summary The aim of this report is to investigate the project management aspects relating to the World Trade Organisation’s (WTO) ministerial conference in 2005. This report details the issues relating to project management and the impact of the project management practices on the outcome of the event. It identifies the key stakeholders in the project and the role they had in determining the success/failure of the project. This report further discusses the role of the leadership and the effective team building and management skills and how much of an impact these had in the successful project delivery. Introduction The World Trade Organisation (WTO) Sixth Ministerial Conference which is abbreviated as MC6 and popularly known as the Hong Kong Ministerial Conference was held between the 13th and 18th December, 2005 at the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre. The total turn around expected for the conference was representatives from around 148 countries across the globe. The Hong Kong People’s Alliance led a protest on the WTO which mainly consisted of farmers from South Korea. The three main designated protest zones included Wan Chai Sports ground and the region around Wan Chai Cargo Handling Basin. The total budget for the ministerial conference was Hong Kong $250 million (WTO, 2005).BackgroundThe highest decision making body of the World Trade Organisation is the Ministerial Conference that meets a minimum of once every two years. This ministerial conference provides the organisation with the direction and helps in the decision making process (HKPA, 2006). The conference held from 13th – 18th December 2005 is the sixth ministerial conference and was aimed at making a decision about the liberalisation of farm trade and reaching an agreement relating to farm subsidies . It also aimed at successfully concluding the 2006 Doha Round (Target WTO, 2005).The role of the project managerThe project manager of the WTO conference 2005 is responsible for the success of the project and also ensuring that the stakeholders relationships are well maintained and that all the stakeholders are able to effectively communicate and share their ideas about agricultural issues (Heydon, 2006). Given that the WTO ministerial conferences play a major role in the decision making process and ensuring that multilateral trade agreements are smoothly implemented, the role of the project manager cannot be underestimated (Alam, 2008). This report discusses the role of the project manager in establishing good stakeholder relationships and his role in the success of the project.Project Objectives and ScopeThe objectives and scope of the 2005 HK WTO conference was to establish: Market access – reduction in the tariff of goods Domestic support – direct payments to be made to the farmers and local producers Export Subsidies Services – remove restrictions internationally in various service sectors and Singapore Issues – demand for transparency in laws, fair competition etc. (UN, 2005) The scope of the project management planning activities included arrangement of venue, security and emergency, organisation of logistics, managing media, budgeting and risk and contingency planning (Alam, 2008). Stakeholder Analysis This section of the report discusses the key stakeholders in the HK WWTO 2005 meeting, stakeholder analysis methods to effectively communicate with these stakeholders in order to ensure smooth communication. Stakeholder Analysis is defined as the activity which analyses in depth the attitudes of all the key stakeholders towards a project (Goodpaster, 1991). Other definitions by researchers (Freeman, 1984) include ‘a group of individuals who can affect or be affected by the achievement of the organization objectives’.Key StakeholdersThe key stakeholders of the WTO include the member nations, the vendors, tradesmen, farmers and other categories of trade associations, the media, the public, governing bodies, the international trade community. It also includes the general population and public that are affected directly or indirectly as a result of the agreements and arrangements made by the WTO Ministerial conference committee (Alam, 2008).High Power , High InterestOne of the member nations that holds high power as well as high interest in the World Trade Organisation. There are a total of 153 nations in the WTO and the USA engages with various other nations and takes a leadership role in the WTO ministerial. For instance, USA played a key role in the Doha Conference and was blamed both directly and indirectly for holding up t he talks and the progress of the sessions. Given the high power and interest it holds in the WTO, USA aims to boost its exports. It plays a major role in the WTO negotiations to enhance its stance in the WTO as a ‘leader’ and also to use the opportunity to initiate talks with its trading partners like Japan and India. Given its power, most decisions of the trade-rounds are highly influenced by the United States (BBC, 2013).High Power, Low InterestHong Kong as one of the key members of the WTO was the host to the fifth ministerial conference in the year 2005. Though being a key member, Hong Kong has not shown much interest in the activities of the WTO and has not taken any proactive steps in issue resolution of the ongoing issues of the WTO. Be it agriculture or environmental issues,Hong Kong remains to be a silent spectator in most cases which clearly indicates the lack of interest in influencing the member states or steering them to decision making on specific issues (BBC, 2013).Low Power, High InterestThe farmers and the agriculture community worldwide have high interest in the activities of the WTO as the trade agreements that are negotiated and agreed upon have a serious bearing on their livelihood and concerns. There is a growing concern relating to fairer trade markets, food security and farming subsidies. Though there is a lot of interest shown by the farming community, they do not have the power to speak and hence do not have the influencing capability. The increase in the suicide rates of farmers is also attributed to the failure of WTO to understand their concerns and the lack of transparency and inequality in dealings of the WTO (Long, 2007; Shiva, 2014). Researchers also suggest that there is a lack of understanding from the WTO committee members on the needs of the farmers and the decisions made are not in line with their demands (Anderson and Martin, 2005).Low Power, Low InterestThe last type of stakeholders have the least power an d are also not very much interested in the activities of the WTO. The citizens of Hong Kong for example, belong to this stakeholder group. Given that the multilateral agreements are huge and complex, the authorities do not have the capacity and capability to scrutinise the details of all contracts. Also, the authorities of a country are not held accountable for the negotiations and agreements signed. This makes them lose interest given that they neither have the power nor the capacity to influence the decision making. Also there are restrictions that prohibit them from questioning the authority (Keohane and Nye, 2001; Scharpf, 2000). Stakeholder Management Stakeholder management is essential for the smooth communication and functioning of an organisation and also to ensure that the objectives of the organisation are achieved. Stakeholder management should be in line with the strategic management objectives of the organisation and the type of the stakeholder that needs to be satisfied should be taken into account depending on the organisation type in order to ensure that these expectations are met. It is essential to first identify the various stakeholders, their role in the organisation, the decision making authority they have in the organisation and how much their ideas or ideals would affect the success of the organisation. Once these are identified, it is essential to develop a stakeholder management strategy that is aimed at not only satisfying these stakeholders but also helps achieve the overall objective of the organisation (Freeman, 2001). In a multicultural organisation or where the organisation is huge and spans across different continents and cultures, the stakeholder management strategy becomes inevitable. It defines the communication methods and helps understanding the do’s and don’ts in each geographic location. It also helps achieve transparency in operations and facilitates better participation of the stakeholders in the decision making process. Stronger business decisions that are sustainable, long term and ethical are facilitated by a good stakeholder management approach (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2014).Communication ManagementResearchers believe that not all stakeholders of an organisation have equal importance. For example, in a non-governmental organisation which is aimed at helping people, the pubic might be the key stakeholder as opposed to a business organisation which aims at satisfying the primary needs of the shareholders. Hence, in a diverse world where the needs of the organisations diff er, it is essential to understand the primary stakeholders who needs to be satisfied and devise a communication management plan to ensure that the communication to these stakeholders are made in near real-time and in an effective manner (Podnar and Jancic, 2006; Jacobson et al, 2009).Tuckman’s Communication ModelBruce Tuckman devised a five step communication model in the year 1975. These five steps includes: Forming Storming Norming Performing and Adjourning Forming: This is where the leader gives the guidance to the team and the initial stage in the communication process. This is a stage where the roles and responsibilities are unclear Storming: Brainstorming activities take place, compromises happen, clarity increases and the team members get a basic understanding of what is required of them Norming: The team members agree by consensus. The leader facilitates the decision making but the team members are now in a position to agree. The roles and responsibilities defined by the leader in the forming stage are now very clear and evident. Performing: The team members are strategically aware and are able to execute their responsibilities and perform better in order to achieve the goals. They work on their own and there is very little interference from the leader. The leader is called for when there is guidance required both in terms of personal and interpersonal development Adjourning: Also known as Deforming or Mourning, refers to the breaking up of the group after the successful completion of the task. This stage involves identification of good performers, the well-being of the team and also measuring the performance. (Tuckman, 1977) Conclusion This report gave a brief about the role of the project manager in the HK 2005 WTO ministerial conference and the various stakeholders, the level of interest and the power to influence the decision making of the WTO. Furthermore, this report also discussed effective stakeholder management techniques and methods, communication strategy in relation to the WTO. References Freeman (1984) Strategic Management, A Stakeholder Approach, Pitman, Boston Podnar, K., & Jancic, Z. (2006). Towards a categorization of stakeholder groups: An empirical verification of a three?level model. Journal of Marketing Communications, 12(4), 297-308. Jacobson, S. K., & McDuff, M. D. (2009). Communication as an effective management strategy in a diverse world. Wildlife and Society: The Science of Human Dimensions. Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. C. (1977). Stages of small-group development revisited. Group & Organization Management, 2(4), 419-427. Carroll, A., & Buchholtz, A. (2014). Business and society: Ethics, sustainability, and stakeholder management. Cengage Learning. Freeman, R. E., & McVea, J. (2001). A stakeholder approach to strategic management. Scharpf, F. W., & Schmidt, V. A. (Eds.). (2000). Welfare and work in the open economy: volume ii: diverse responses to common challenges in twelve countries (Vol. 2). Oxford University Press. Keohane, R. O., & Nye, J. S. (2001). Power and interdependence (Vol. 3). New York: Longman. Shiva, Vandana (2014) Of food, farmers and WTO’s doublespeak, Available at: http://www.asianage.com/columnists/food-farmers-and-wto-s-doublespeak-972 accessed on 06/12/14 Long, Jessica (2007):â€Å"WTO Kills Farmers†: India Free Market Reforms Trigger Farmers’ Suicides, Global Research Anderson, K. and Martin, W. (2005), Agricultural Trade Reform and the Doha Development Agenda. World Economy, 28: 1301–1327. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9701.2005.00735.x BBC (2013): Profile: World Trade Organization, Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/2429503.stm accessed on 05/12/14 WTO (2005): Hong Kong WTO Ministerial 2005: Briefing Notes, The â€Å"Win-Win† Potential for trade and environment, Available at: http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min05_e/brief_e/brief11_e.htm accessed on 05/12/14 HKPA (2006): Hong Kong People’s Alliance on WTO, Wayback Machine, Available at: Accessed on 05/12/14 Target WTO (2005): Target World Trade Organisation, Available at: http://www.targetwto.revolt.org/ Accessed on 05/12/14 Alam S (2008): Sustainable Development and Free Trade, Institutional Approaches, Routledge, UK Heydon K (2006): After the Hong Kong Ministerial Meeting: What is at stake?, OECD, France United Nations(2005): Perspectives from the ESCAP Region after the Fifth WTO Ministerial Meeting: Ideas and Actions Following Cancun (Studies in Trade and Investment), United Nations

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Ethics in Engineering (Ford Crown Victoria Interceptor) - Essay Example Though there was no abnormality of this setup, engineers should reposition the fuel tank for the police vehicles to minimize these accidents. The design for fuel-tank in the Crown Victoria Police Interceptor (CVPI) was all right according to federal safety standards (Fleddermann, 2011). However, CVPI had failed to take precautions necessary for minimizing the risk of explosion of the fuel tank in case the vehicle was smashed from behind. Ford should have positioned the tank far from the axle bolt because it is responsible for causing damage to the tank when the car experiences a rear smash (Lieu & Sorby, 2009). Ford should also have distanced the fuel tank away from the crash region. These precautions are essential in police vehicles because of they're prone to such incidences since they are usually parked a short distance from the road. The design for the fuel tank in CVPI failed to meet acceptable engineering standards (Fleddermann, 2011). This is because engineers have a duty to ensure safety for their clients and the general public. Engineers should exercise their professional skills and ethics when discharging their duties. Therefore, since the engineers knew the use of the police vehicles and the risk they were exposed to in case of rear smash, they should have taken preventative measures to minimize such risks. Engineers have an obligation to conform to the existing states laws, professional principles and exercise their skills to the best of their ability to discharge their duties safely and successfully (Pahl, Wallace & Blessing, 2007). Therefore, it was vital that the designers obeyed federal regulations during discharge of their roles. The CVPI vehicles for use by police were supposed to be redesigned by placing the gas-tank some distance from the axle to minimize the risk of damage to the tank.

Free

Free Market Essay According to the Investopedia, ‘a free market system is a market economy based on supply and demand with little or no government control. It is a completely free market in which buyers and sellers are allowed to transact freely based on a mutual agreement on price without Government intervention in the form of taxes, subsidies or regulation’. Therefore, the free market system is good for Belize. Belize positively benefits from this system because it ensures competitive markets, the consumers are part of the decision making process, and the supply and demand create competition. The free market system is good for Belize because it ensures competitive markets. There is a need for competitive markets so that we have the survival of the fittest. We need to have the best businesses so that we have more chances of developing as an economy. The fittest businesses bring better opportunities for the society since they will have better quality and service. Also by having competition, it brings about many benefits to the consumer. This may be seen for example in the case of Digicel and Smart, whereby there competitiveness is so high that they give so many advantages to their customers through their regular promotions. In addition, by having the best businesses we have better chances to survive as an international business. Consumers voices are heard in that their decisions determine what products or services are in demand. This is another advantage of Belize having a free market system. In all reality, the consumers are the ones to decide which business stays and which go. The consumers know what they want and need, it is from this that they decide what to buy and consume. For example, most people from Orange Walk would prefer tacos over burritos. This is clearly seen by the increasing numbers of tacos vendors and a small if any number of burrito vendors. If a burrito stand would open, it is probable that it would not have enough demand so hence it would shutdown. Supply and demand create competition, which helps ensure that the best goods or services are provided to consumers at a lower price. This will lead the businesses to having better quality and service and by having this the business itself becomes an overall better business. This benefits the society because they are receiving better goods and services and at a lower price. An example would be the fruits and vegetables sold at the market. Different stalls at the market may have different prices, so the consumer may have the option to buy the one with the lowest price or the one with the best quality. If the good is bought based on the lowest price then the other stalls will need to lower their price as well because if they don’t then they might not sell their goods. In an article by Chris Seabury, he states that in the United States those who want the removal of government intervention say the free market would force the businesses to protect the consumer. This in turn would provide the customers with quality goods and services at low price. Also he stated that there are several disadvantages to having government intervention. Government intervention can create a huge government bureaucracy, it can create huge monopolies, and it can compress innovation by over-regulating. Firstly, government regulation creates a huge government bureaucracy that stifles growth. In USA many labor and environmental regulations force businesses to move jobs off shore, where they can find more reasonable regulations. Secondly, government intervention creates huge monopolies. This will lead us, the customers, to having to pay higher prices for goods and services. For example, ATT functioned as a regulated national monopoly in the 1980s and provided consumers with high telephone rates. Thirdly, regulation by the government compresses innovation by over-regulating. When there are too many regulations, the business will be at a disadvantage in its country. For example, in USA the coal industry has so many regulations that it is more profitable to ship coal overseas than to sell it domestically. Overall, the free market system is good for Belize because it creates opportunities for the economy and benefits the consumers in many ways. The free market system is not perfect but it has many advantages that may lead the country on the path to development. The free market system creates benefits such as ensuring competitive markets, making the consumers part of the decision making process, and supply and demand creating competition. All in all, the government becomes inefficient when it creates bureaucracy that increases the cost of doing business for everyone.

Formation of an Alkene by Alcohol Dehydration Essay Example for Free

Formation of an Alkene by Alcohol Dehydration Essay Beer’s Law is an empirical relationship that relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. In turn, absorbance is proportional to concentration and the higher the concentration, the higher the absorbance. This experiment incorporated Beer’s Law and is focused on determining the stress that various alcohols have on biological membranes. Using five solutions of differing alcohol concentration for each of the three alcohols; methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol and a small slice of beet, the stirred solution was placed into a plastic cuvette and then into a spectrophotometer and the absorbance of alcohol solutions were determined in order to conclude which alcohol and concentration of alcohol had the greatest effect on biological membranes. The results showed that the most non-polar of the alcohols being tested, 1-proponal, caused the greatest damage to the biological membrane, the beet cell’s vacuole. INTRODUCTION The boundary between any cell and its environment is the plasma membrane, composed of a matrix of phospholipids molecules with many different kinds of proteins. Membranes have different properties and a variety of functions, in large part determined by the specific proteins within the membrane. The purpose of this experiment is to observe the effects of various alcohols on biological membranes, to determine the stress that various alcohols have on biological membranes and to conclude which concentration of alcohol has the greatest effect on biological membranes. The central plant vacuole of plant cells contains water and solutes, including water-soluble pigments. Its membrane, the tonoplast, is normally poorly permeable to water. The central plant vacuole of the root cells of beet contains a water-soluble red pigment, betacyanin, which gives the beet its characteristic color. Since the pigment is water-soluble and not lipid soluble, it remains in the vacuole when cells are healthy. If the tonoplast and the plasma membrane are damaged, the vacuole’s contents will leak out into the surrounding environment. Membrane disruption generally occurs when the cell is dead. Methanol, ethanol and 1-propanol are very similar alcohols, differing only in the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms within the molecule. One possible reason why these alcohols are so toxic to living organisms is that they might damage membranes. The polarity of methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol comes from the OH group where the electrons are affected. The longer the R group the less the attraction. If 1-propanol is the most non-polar alcohol of the alcohols being tested, then 1-proponol will cause the greatest damage to the biological membrane, the beet cell’s vacuole. The effect of three different alcohols, methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol, were tested on the beet vacuole membranes in this experiment. A measure of absorbance was collected using a conductivity probe. If a beet cell’s vacuole membrane (the tonoplast) was damaged, the red pigment, betacyanin, leaked out of the cell. The more red pigment that leaked out into the surrounding environment and the more intense the pigment, the greater the absorbance and the amount of cellular damage sustained by the beet. RESULTS The absorbance of methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol were collected after the alcohol solutions of differing concentrations were placed in the plastic cuvette and then into the spectrophotometer. The absorbance of methanol, ethanol, and 1-proponal followed a general trend; the absorbance of the alcohol increased in relation to the rise in concentration of each alcohol solution. Figure 1. The graph depicts five solution of differing alcohol concentrations for each of the three alcohols; methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol. The alcohol with the highest measurement of absorbance was the non-polar 1-proponal. (Figure 1) DISCUSSION The results (Figure 1), in general, support the original hypothesis that if 1-propanol is the most non-polar alcohol of the alcohols being tested, then 1-proponol will cause the greatest damage to the biological membrane, the beet cell’s vacuole. Hence, 1-proponal had the highest absorbance. The polarity of methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol comes from the OH group, where the electrons are effected. The longer the R group the less the attraction between the molecules. In turn, methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol are arranged from most polar to non-polar. At concentrations of 20% methanol, 10% and 20% ethanol, and 20% 1-propanol, the absorbance did not follow the general trend of data. This is due to sources of error in this experiment. There proved to have many sources of error in this experiment given the data gathered in this study and the evidence to this point. Sources of error include the size and surface area of the beat, cross contamination, and puncturing the beet during the stirring of solution. If the size and surface area of the beet slices were not uniform, bigger slices of beets had the potential to secrete a larger quantity of red pigment and a greater intensity in color in turn, increasing the absorbance. If the alcohol solutions were not stirred in order from lowest concentration to highest concentration, cross contamination would have occurred. If lower concentrations of alcohol are diluted with higher concentrations of alcohol, the absorbance of the lower concentration of alcohol will increase. If the beet was punctured during the stirring process, a greater amount of red pigment leaked out into the surrounding environment and in turn, the absorbance is increased. Beer’s Law is an empirical relationship that relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. Beer’s Law is represented as A = ? bc (1) Where A is equal to the absorbance, ? is equal to the molar absorbtivity, b is equal to path length, and c is equal to concentration. In turn, absorbance is proportional to concentration and the higher the concentration of the red pigment that leaks out into the surrounding environment, the higher the absorbance of the alcohol.

The Industry Of Portable Music Players Media Essay

The Industry Of Portable Music Players Media Essay Nowadays, most people in the world love to listen to the music. Some of them use it for relaxation, some for inspiration and energy, but regardless of the reasons, music became an important part of our lives. This is proved by the fact that now we can meet more and more people with earphones in their ears while walking, going in subway or even working. Portable audio players are now as popular as the Beatles were in the 1960s (Biersdorfer 2009). Each era has its musical carrier. The 60s and 70s were marked by ribbons in rolls and phonograph records; 80s were marked by the advent of cassettes. Time passed and the carries changed; audio players became more portable, tech. The romance has gone away, and only practical issues remained the music moved into digital format (GreenFacts 2008). Just now we have ipod, Iriver and many more brands under which the players are produced. But thirty years ago such a thing as a portable music player, did not exist at all. There were weighty reel and cassette recorders, record players. There was no opportunity of spending time listening to favorite tracks. But the idea was hovering somewhere in the air and waited for its genius. The Japanese were the first who started to develop the idea of portable music players (Krakow 2005). Even now, not everything is known about the exact creation of the first portable music player. There are two major and quite implausible versions: according to the first one, an engineer Nobutoshi Kihara created it for the head of Sony, so he could listen to music during long trips through the ocean. According to the second the idea of a portable cassette recorder was created by Akio Morita himself (founder of Sony). Watching his children all days long listening to the stereos of their favorite the Beatles and Elvis, he need the device for listening to music, which he could take everywhere with him. He insisted player not to have recording function. And it was a bold move, considering that most of desktop cassette recorders were very popular thanks to their ability to record music (Clements 1994). Sony guessed the desire of the public. The result was an absolute bestseller. In 1979, a small cassette player Walkman TPS-L2 was released. Although it was the first of its kind, it cost not so much $ 200. The first Walkman players used magnetic audio cassettes and looked bulky a little bit. Sony first advertised that series in Japan, in 1979. Walkmans where almost always powered by two AA batteries and provided rather good quality music if the cassette was of good quality (Hart-Davis 2004). Over time, Walkman TPS-L2 was recognized as one of the greatest inventions of the company. Or even the best in history in general. According to rating of the 50 best devices created by mankind made by the magazine PC World, the first place was awarded L2, seized the gold medal even from iPod. After that Sony decided not to stop: and in 1980 gave the world the first prototype of CD. And four years later the first portable model Sony Discman D50 appeared. It cost accordingly $ 500 (Glenn 2006). The capacity of the first CD was 640 MB, and that number was not occasional. Morita made a research, which provided a very interesting data. It was found that potential buyers of CDs are the people who preferred to listen to classical music. Taking the most popular in Japan, Ninth Symphony by Beethoven, which lasts almost 74 minutes, the engineers transferred 74 minutes of 16th-bit sound into bytes, and received 640 MB (Grey 2010). While many people still think that such a size of a disc is just a technical limitation, it is not so. Some time later the discs with 700 and even 800 MB were created, although the laser parameters were not changed. One way or another, Sony has always focused on the needs of the buyer. And it was the main secret of success of the company during the period from 70s to 90s, when the vendor has acquired an impeccable reputation and tremendous respect among consumers (Lungu 2008). Bit in the 1990s the Japanese did a mistake, creating its own ATRAC audio format and new carriers Mini Disc. Work in those areas could easily turn into a success. Mini Disc was significantly less than the conventional CD, consequently, as the players for them. The first player with new carrier, Sony Walkman MD MZ1, was compact in comparison with the first CD-models. But cost too much $ 750 (Martin 2009). In general a good venture suffered from fiasco. In Japan, the new invention was greeted very warmly, but the unyielding American market categorically rejected the creation of a new Sony. Sales of mini-discs in Russia were more very poor. The market had plenty of cheap CD-players, which were much easier to use than the new Mini Disc with the new format ATRAC. The failure of the ATRAC was because of the need to transcode music from CDs to digital format individual files. That dubious necessity took away five minutes of time on the transcoding of each record. On the one hand, it was a breakthrough the recordings could be kept not on the compacts, but in the computer. But that fact also gave a big disadvantage: those days there were not so many computers and they were very slow and space on hard drive was not enough for music collections (Gross 2007). In addition, music in ATRAC was protected by a system of copy protection OpenMG the invention of Sony. Such records could not be listened to on another computer or player. The users were not satisfied by that fact. If the failure of MD-players on the ATRAC was assumed, the refusal to support released in 1995 MP3 was a colossal folly. Many companies, including Sony, underestimated the prospects for MP3. The people understood the beauty of the new format. By 1998 hard drives were already able to accommodate a small audio collection, and the computers coped with encoding audio CDs to MP3. In addition, relatively small files could be easily sent over the Internet. So, none then needed that problematic ATRAC (Ruckert 2003). So, in 1998, a rather unknown Korean company Saehan Information Systems released its first MP3-player called MPman F10. No discs were used; there was used a flash memory of 32MB. A low price and ease of filling the music through an LPT port showed that in the very near future, such players would have to become megapopular. The first MP3-player on the hard drive HanGo PJB-100 appeared a year later. It was huge as a brick (150h80h26 mm), incredibly expensive ($ 800), but with the memory of 4.8 GB. About 4500 minutes of music at a bitrate of 128 kbps (Dixon 2006). The first player with hard drive was developed by Compaq, but has begun to be made in late 1999 under license by Hango and was called Personal JukeBox. PJB-100 had anti-shock buffer and could accommodate about a hundred of CDs to the hard disk with the capacity of 4.8 GB. It was chubby black player with a screen to navigate directly to albums and songs. Player Creative Nomad Jukebox with 6 GB of capacity released in September 2000, it still weighed a lot (about 450 g), but looked like a portable CD-player. Player Creative provided an opportunity to play WAV-files and the firmware update also allowed to listen to files in Microsoft WMA (Shamoon 2009). In 2000, Kenwood has developed a portable CD-player DPC-MP727, which could play a CD with WMA-file, and in 2001 it introduced the Rio Volt combined portable CD-player capable to play both audio CD, and CDs with MP3-files. It was possible to use a simple list of songs in M3U, but players with hard drives and flash memory worked on battery power longer (Humphries 2009). The high price and smaller convenience led to the fact that removable media did not become popular in the MP3-players. That time, the company I2Go released player based on a miniature hard drive IBM MicroDrive. In the MP3-player with a small size it was possible even to insert two hard drives of 1 GB MicroDrive, but it cost $ 2000 (Keppler 2010). I2Go ceased to exist after giving its promotional samples to all the nominees at the Oscar awards ceremony in 2000. Iomega applied the same approach in players HipZip, which used much less expensive carriers Click on the 40 MB (PocketZip); cost $ 10 each. Players HipZip reproduced audio format WMA, AAC and MP3. The problem was in this: despite the fact that it was technically possible to support a capacity of 60 or 80 MB, Iomega preferred 40 MB in order more discs were bought. Alas, but to record 60 minutes of CD quality music on a disk with the capacity of 40 MB with no appreciable loss of quality is impossible (Green 2007). Sony has developed its first digital music player in 2000, but it was not named Walkman and could not play MP3-files. Player MC-P10 Music Clip MP3 encoded files to ATRAC3, used by MiniDisc (and all music devices until the production of Sony phones Sony Ericsson Walkman). Then the player was renamed to Memory Stick Walkman and got a slot for flash cards Memory Stick, but it still played only ATRAC-files. In 2001, Nike introduced its first sport player Nike PSA Play, lightweight flash-player with large buttons, wrist holder and a neoprene case. In the same year Intel released the first MP3-player with a 128 MB Pocket Concert, but it wasnt very popular. And in October 2001, Apple announced the first 5 GB iPod (Khan, Joshua 2010). So, the year of 2001 was a turning point, and certainly a landmark for the entire industry of portable players. That year, changed not only the way of listening to music, but the entire music industry changed. Instead of strange Japanese and gloomy Korean players there appeared a legendary iPod. Known for its thought-out products, Apple approached the creation of the player thoroughly: great headphones were added to iPods, also there was attached a mechanical scroll wheel and provided excellent audio chip. Later, wheel became a touch and it remains the same till today. In addition, Apple was the first that equipped the player with 1.8-inch hard disk drive of 5 GB that previously used only in subnotebooks (Sturm 2010). There were also players with the capacious hard drives, but they cost a lot, were hefty, and the volume of 20 GB was simply not needed. IPod has become the golden mean between the storage capacity, size, and adequate price. Plus, the design made by Apple couldnt remain anyone indifferent. And Sony, having lost all credibility and respect of the public, went into hibernation for almost five years during which we have not seen a single item product. Awareness of errors came rather late: only last year it was decided to abandon the format ATRAC and SonicStage. So, during the last eight years the market of portable players grew much faster than in the ` 90s. The demand for MP3 players appeared. The company Archos, was the first that established in the PMP a full color screen. Since 2004, there was the fashion on video every player then was not only to play music but movies also. Players got new functions in the Rio Karma there was a support of an alternative format OGG, which was popular in 2003. Then, Archos has done absolutely useless trick, folding player and a simple digital camera AV300. The idea, however, completely failed (Zimmer 2009). The attempt of Creative to make a smart player, also failed. UMPC ZEN PMC looked cool in 2004, but it was absolutely useless: firstly, because of the size, and secondly, because of Windows CE. The little player Diva GEM has introduced Bluetooth, but in 2004 it was unclaimed. But the year of 2005 gave us the iPod nano that is after all, the best of our days. Attractive appearance, small size, good price, quality of Apple thats the whole secret of success (AsanWay 2010). Then music players were modified with different touch-screens and other implementations. The development of media players in general is very interesting to watch you never know how things will turn will there be a new trend maker or a new, unknown function will become standard? It is difficult to guess even a year ahead, because Portable Music Players are popular now and the technology is developing very quickly.

Jeffersons Effects of Slavery :: essays research papers

Effects of Slavery   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many concepts which are deemed important to this class. After much consideration, I chose to focus on the effects of slavery. In Query XVIII, Thomas Jefferson discusses the effects of slavery. It is important to put one’s self in the place of Jefferson at the time of observations. Jefferson illustrates the effects that slavery has on the owner as well as the slave.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jefferson redefines slavery in his query. â€Å"The whole commerce between master and slave is a perpetual exercise of the most boisterous passions, the most unremitting despotism on the one part, and degrading submissions on the other.† (495) He illustrates how witnessing the afore mentioned actions negatively affects children. â€Å"Our children see this, and learn to imitate it; for man is an imitative animal.† (495) Jefferson is under the impression that slavery leads to bad manners to say the least. The children will see this and think that that is how you treat a slave; the process will never stop. Jefferson does not think that we, as humans, have the power to remain moral after having witnessed such abuse. â€Å"The man must be a prodigy who can retain his manners and morals undepraved by such circumstances.† (495,496) Jefferson goes on to say that the people who allow this treatment of one half of the citizens to trample on the other h alf are responsible for the moral decline of the nation. These horrific actions will create enemies and destroy the â€Å"amor patriae† of people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jefferson tries to demonstrate the effects that slavery has on the slaves themselves. It is apparent that he is not sure if the slaves are actual people that go to heaven but I do not think he is willing to risk that they are not in the eyes of God. â€Å"For if a slave can have a country in this world, it must be any other in preference to that in which he is born to live and labour for another. Jeffersons Effects of Slavery :: essays research papers Effects of Slavery   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many concepts which are deemed important to this class. After much consideration, I chose to focus on the effects of slavery. In Query XVIII, Thomas Jefferson discusses the effects of slavery. It is important to put one’s self in the place of Jefferson at the time of observations. Jefferson illustrates the effects that slavery has on the owner as well as the slave.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jefferson redefines slavery in his query. â€Å"The whole commerce between master and slave is a perpetual exercise of the most boisterous passions, the most unremitting despotism on the one part, and degrading submissions on the other.† (495) He illustrates how witnessing the afore mentioned actions negatively affects children. â€Å"Our children see this, and learn to imitate it; for man is an imitative animal.† (495) Jefferson is under the impression that slavery leads to bad manners to say the least. The children will see this and think that that is how you treat a slave; the process will never stop. Jefferson does not think that we, as humans, have the power to remain moral after having witnessed such abuse. â€Å"The man must be a prodigy who can retain his manners and morals undepraved by such circumstances.† (495,496) Jefferson goes on to say that the people who allow this treatment of one half of the citizens to trample on the other h alf are responsible for the moral decline of the nation. These horrific actions will create enemies and destroy the â€Å"amor patriae† of people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jefferson tries to demonstrate the effects that slavery has on the slaves themselves. It is apparent that he is not sure if the slaves are actual people that go to heaven but I do not think he is willing to risk that they are not in the eyes of God. â€Å"For if a slave can have a country in this world, it must be any other in preference to that in which he is born to live and labour for another.

Chocky - Tv Vs The Book :: essays research papers

Chocky The Novel Chocky was written by John Wyndham and was later adapted into a TV drama by the BBC. The producers, Pamela Londale and Vic Hughes, kept the same title for the TV series as the Novel, and named it Chocky, but the Film text had some changes in events, different character interpretation and alternative way of showing foreshadowing. The Film version differs quite a lot from the Novel. There were a number of changes to the plot, but most of these were only little issues. One of the major differences in plot was Matthew’s relationship with Colin. Colin was Matthew’s next door neighbour in the Novel, but there was no close friendship or relationship between them. However in the Film, Colin is Matthew’s best friend, classmate and neighbour, whom Matthew was always visiting and playing with. One of biggest changes occurs in the character Piff. Piff was Polly’s long gone imaginary friend in the Novel who was only talked about, whilst in the Film Piff was still around and living. Another change from the Novel was the way in which Chocky helped Matthew. Chocky gave Matthew the ability to draw properly, helped him to swim and then save Polly, and taught Matthew to do the binary code in both texts. However in the Film Chocky also gave Matthew super strength to play cricket, develop fast reflexes to play computer games and do the rubix cubes at amazing speeds. The Film Editor, Oscar Webb left out some scenes and added some different ones. One of these new scenes included the visit to the planetarium. Later we saw Chocky entering Matthew’s body during a Maths class, along with other scenes in the class rooms, such as biology, not previously mentioned in the Novel. Also Matthew visited Colin’s house on numerous occasions and we saw Matthew’s Mother and Father shopping for a new car and then Matthew winning a cricket game. The editor also added more detailed facts about the holiday at the Cottage. All of these extra events added more to the Film than the original Novel. n 2 - The two texts had quite a few different character interpretations. One of the major differences being in the interpretation of Chocky. In the Novel Chocky was only a voice in Matthew’s head which Matthew would translate to other people, whilst in the film she had an actual voice which was presented by the Actor, Glynis Brookes’ voice.

Ralph Waldo Emerson and Paolo Freires Visions of Traditional Methods o

Ralph Waldo Emerson and Paolo Freire's Visions of Traditional Methods of Education Paulo Freire and Ralph Waldo Emerson share a similar vision in regards to traditional methods of education. A main common view is that both writers feel that the current education system in most places does not allow for people to reach their full capacity. Freire and Emerson share many other ideas regarding education such as their view of practice and theory and of free thinking. Their works are among the most thought-evoking. In ?The American Scholar? Emerson places a strong emphasis on the role of books in education and their usage of conveying ideas. He states that, ?Books are the best things, well used; abused, among the worst? (p. 297). This refers to his thought that the idea behind books is indeed a well thought out one. However, aside from the possible misuse of books, there are certain tasks that a book can not accomplish. Many are relevant only for a period of time, after which they become obsolete and new books are required. This is one of the reasons that Emerson feels that books alone can not provide a concrete education. They must be supplemented with additional studies, or, according to Emerson, book studies should be combined with experiences and applied to life. To read for the sake of knowing information is pointless; instead, man should read with the intent to apply newly obtained knowledge to his life. Man should read with a dissecting eye, and pick apart the prose, keeping what is relevant and discarding what is babble. This captures the true purpose of books. Paralleling Emerson?s view of books is Freire?s idea of theory and praxis. Man can learn all there is to know about a ... ...that they in fact have nothing to present. Emerson and Freire see eye to eye on many issues regarding the education of man. The main concept that they share is a belief that man should think freely. All other ideas stated by Freire and Emerson are strictly extensions of this point. The educational vision of Emerson and Freire is for man to learn in a society free of preconceptions, where all men?s ideas are valued and where knowledge is ascertained for the use of practice not just as an end in itself. Bibliography: Emerson, Ralph W. "The American Scholar." 1837. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter, et al. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. 1609-1621. Freire, Paolo. "The Banking Concept of Education." Ways of Reading. Ed. David Bartholomae and Anthony Petrosky. 4th ed. Boston: Bedford Books, 1996. 212-27.

Dynamic and formal equivalence Essay

? Wikipedia: Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. ? General Oxford Dictionary: Translation n 1 the act or an instance of translating. 2 a written or spoken expression of the meaning of a word, speech, book, etc. in another language. ? Dictionary of Translation Studies: Translation: An incredibly broad notion which can be understood in many different ways. For example, one may talk of translation as a process or a product, and identify sub-types as literary translation, technical translation, subtitling and machine translation; moreover, while more typically it just refers to the transfer of written texts, the term sometimes also includes interpreting. ? Free Online Dictionary: trans ·la ·tion (tr[pic]ns-l[pic][pic]sh[pic]n) n. 1. a. The act or process of translating, especially from one language into another. b. The state of being translated. 2. A translated version of a text. ? Elook. org [noun] a written communication in a second language having the same meaning as the written communication in a first language. Synonyms: interlingual rendition, rendering, version In his seminal paper, ‘On Linguistic Aspects of Translation’ (Jakobson 1959/2000), the Russo-American linguist Roman Jakobson makes a very important distinction between three types of written translation: 1. Intralingual translation- translation within the same language, which can involve rewording or paraphrase. 2. Interlingual Translation- Translation from language to another, and 3. Intersemiotic Translation- Translation of the verbal sign by a non-verbal sign, e. g music or image. Only the second category, interlingual translation, is deemed ‘translation proper’ by Jackobson. Theories of Translation Eugene A. Nida Discussions about theories of translation are too often concerned with distinctions between literary and nonliterary texts, between prose and poetry, or between technical articles on physics and run-of-the-mill commercial correspondence. But in order to understand the nature of translation, the focus should not be on different types of discourse but on the processes and procedures involved in any and all kinds of interlingual communication (Bell, 1987). Furthermore, a theory of interlingual communication should not be restricted to discussions between translating and interpreting (whether consecutive or simultaneous), since interpreting differs from translating primarily because of the pressures of time and exigencies of the setting. Some professional translators take considerable pride in denying that they have any theory of translation — they just translate. In reality, however, all persons engaged in the complex task of translating possess some type of underlying or covert theory, even though it may be still very embryonic and described only as just being â€Å"faithful to what the author was trying to say. † Instead of no theories of translation, there are a multiplicity of such theories, even though they are seldomly stated in terms of a full-blown theory of why, when, and how to translate. One of the reasons for so many different views about translating is that interlingual communication has been going on since the dawn of human history. As early as the third millenium BC, bilingual lists of words — evidently for the use of translators — were being made in Mesopotamia, and today translating and interpreting are going on in more than a thousand languages — in fact, wherever there are bilinguals. One of the paradoxes of interlingual communication is that it is both amazingly complex (regarded by LA. Richards (1953) as â€Å"probably the most complex type of event yet produced in the evolution of the cosmos†) and also completely natural (Harris and Sherwood, 1978). Interpreting is often done by children with amazingly fine results, especially before they have gone to school and have learned something about nouns, verbs, and adjectives. One reason for the great variety of translation theories and subtheories is the fact that the processes of translating can be viewed from so many different perspectives: stylistics, author’s intent, diversity of languages, differences of corresponding cultures, problems of interpersonal communication, changes in literary fashion, distinct kinds of content (e.g. mathematical theory and lyric poetry), and the circumstances in which translations are to be used, e. g. read in the tranquil setting of one’s own living room, acted on the theatre stage, or blared from a loudspeaker to a restless mob. The wide range of theories and the great diversity of problems in translation have been treated by a number of persons interested in translation theory and practice, e. g. Guttinger (1963), Vazquez Ayora (1977), and Wilss (1988). A theory should be a coherent and integrated set of propositions used as principles for explaining a class of phenomena. But a fully satisfactory theory of translating should be more than a list of rules-of-thumb by which translators have generally succeeded in reproducing reasonably adequate renderings of source texts. A satisfactory theory should help in the recognition of elements which have not been recognized before, as in the case of black holes in astrophysics. A theory should also provide a measure of predictability about the degree of success to be expected from the use of certain principles, given the particular expectations of an audience, the nature of the content, the amount of information carried by the form of the discourse, and the circumstances of use. Despite a number of important treatments of the basic principles and procedures of translation, no full-scale theory of translation now exists. In fact, it is anomalous to speak of â€Å"theories of translation,† since all that has been accomplished thus far are important series of insightful perspectives on this complex undertaking. The basic reason for this lack of adequate theoretical treatments is that translating is essentially a technology which is dependent upon a number of disciplines: linguistics, cultural anthropology, psychology, communication theory, and neurophysiology. We really know so little about what makes translators tick. But tick they must — and increasingly so in a shrinking multilingual world. Instead of speaking of theories of translation, we should perhaps speak more about various approaches to the task of translating, different orientations which provide helpful insight, and diverse ways of talking about how a message can be transferred from one language to another. The different ways in which people go about the task of interlingual communication can perhaps be best described in terms of different perspectives: (1) the source text, including its production, transmission, and history of interpretation, (2) the languages involved in restructuring the source-language message into the receptor (or target) language, (3) the communication events which constitute the setting of the source message and the translated text, and (4) the variety of codes involved in the respective communication events. These four different perspectives could be regarded as essentially philological, linguistic, communicative, and sociosemiotic. These four major perspectives on the problems of interlingual communication should not, however, be regarded as competitive or antagonistic, but as complementary and supplementary. They do not invalidate one another but result in a broader understanding of the nature of translating. They do, nevertheless, reflect an interesting historical development as the focus of attention has shifted from emphasis on the starting point, namely, the source text, to the manner in which a text is understood by those who receive and interpret it. Such a development is quite natural in view of the fact that all communication is goal oriented and moves from the source’s intention to the receptor’s interpretation. The philological perspective The philological perspective on translation in the Western World goes back ultimately to some of the seminal observations by such persons as Cicero, Horace, Augustine, and Jerome, whose principal concerns were the correct rendering of Greek texts into Latin. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe the philological orientation in translating focused on the issue of â€Å"faithfulness,† usually bound closely to the history of interpretation of the text, something which was especially crucial in the case of Bible translations. For the most part, arguments about the adequacy of translations dealt with the degree of freedom which could or should be allowed, and scholars discussed heatedly whether a translator should bring the reader to the text or bring the text to the reader. Some of the most important early contributions to the philological aspects of translation were made by Luther (1530), Etienne Dolet (1540), Cowley (1656), Dryden (1680), and Pope (1715), but Luther’s influence was probably the greatest in view of his having directly and indirectly influenced so many Bible translations first in Western Europe and later in other parts of the world. This philological perspective is still very much alive, as witnessed by the important contributions of such persons as Cary and Jumpelt (1963), George Steiner (1975), and John Felstiner (1980). Felstiner’s book on Translating Neruda is a particularly valuable contribution to the problem of translating lyric poetry. And the numerous articles in Translation Review, published by the University of Texas at Dallas on behalf of the American Literary Translators Association, represent very well this philological perspective. It is amazing, however, that avowedly philological approaches to translating can result in such radically different results. Those who set their priorities on preserving the literary form produce the kinds of translations which one finds in the text of 2 Corinthians 10. 14-16 in the New American Standard Version of the Bible: For we are not overextending ourselves, as if we did not reach to you, for we were the first to come even as far as you in the gospel of Christ; not boasting beyond our measure, that is, in other men’s labors, but with the hope that as your faith grows, we shall be, within our sphere, enlarged even more by you, so as to preach the gospel even to the regions beyond you, and not to boast in what has been accomplished in the sphere of another. The Greek of this passage is not stylistically bad, but this English butchering of it is hacking at its worst. Many translators have, however, succeeded brilliantly in combining sensitivity to style with faithfulness to content, perhaps represented most strikingly in the rendering of the plays of Aristophanes by Benjamin B. Rogers in the Loeb series (1924). The Clouds is an especially difficult text to translate adequately, since it combines sublime lyrical passages, sharp barbs against philosophy, satirical treatment of Greek education, and ribald humor, which must have kept the crowds roaring with laughter. Rogers makes the text come alive with frequent shifts in meter to match the mood, clever plays on the meanings of words, and particularly adroit handling of dialogue, even to the point of toning down the scatological comments to match the Victorian tastes of his readers. A number of the essential features and limitations of the philological perspective on translating literary works are helpfully described and discussed by Paz (1971) and by Mounin (1963). Octavio Paz has the special gift of being able to discuss issues of literary translation with the touch of a literary artist, which indeed he is. And Georges Mounin has a way of delineating diverse opinions and judgments so as perform an elegant balancing act. Those who have followed primarily a philological orientation toward translating have increasingly recognized that other factors must be given greater attention. In the volume On Translation, edited by Brower (1959), and in the volume Translation: Literary, Linguistic, and Philosophical Perspectives, edited by Frawley (1984), these broader factors of linguistic and cultural matters are introduced and point the way to a more satisfactory approach to some of the crucial problems confronted by translators. The linguistic perspective Since translating always involves at least two different languages, it was inevitable that a number of persons studying the issues of translation would focus upon the distinctive features of the source and receptor languages. Important studies of diverse linguistic structures by such persons as Sapir, Bloomfield, Trubetskoy, and Jakobson laid the foundation for a systematic study of the functions of language. Then the analysis of languages outside of the Semitic and IndoEuropean families by linguist-anthropologists provided the creative stimulus for seeing interlingual relations in new and creative ways. Chomsky (1965, 1972) and his colleagues added a dynamic dimension to language structure through the use of transformations. All this led to the publication of a number of books on translating which have focused primary attention on the correspondences in language structures. Some of the most important of these books were by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Nida (1964), Catford (1965), Tatilon (1986), Larson (1984) and Malone (1988). Except for Malone’s volume, most books dealing with the linguistic aspects of translating have been essentially aimed at meaningful relations rather than purely formal ones. This is particularly true of the approach of Nida and of Larson. But Malone’s volume employs a transformational orientation for a number of formal and semantic processes, including equation, substitution, divergence, convergence, amplification, reduction, diffusion, and condensation. This focus on processes is very productive, but greater attention needs to be paid to the pragmatic features of the original message and to the circumstances regarding the use of a translation. Developments in transformational-generative grammar, with its Boolean rewrite rules and seemingly precise formulas for embedding, gave machine translating a great methodological boost, but this was not adequate to fulfill the expectations aroused through early promotion by computer enthusiasts. The limited success of machine translating, since it requires so much preediting and postediting, has resulted in a shift of focus from purely linguistic methods to Artificial Intelligence as a possible source of fresh insights. But even with highly sophisticated techniques the resulting translations often sound very unnatural (Somers et al, 1988). Some important indirect contributions to a linguistic approach to translating have been made by a number of philosophers interested in linguistic analysis as a way of bringing philosophy down from the clouds of truth, beauty, and goodness to the realism of talking about the language of philosophical discussion. Some of the most influential of these philosophers have been Wittgenstein (1953), Cassirer (1953), Grice (1968), Quine (1953, 1959), and Ric? ur (1969). Many of their insights have been effectively discussed from the linguistic viewpoint by Wells (1954), Antal (1963), Leech (1970), and Moravcsik (1972). These developments provided an important stimulus for developing a less naive approach to epistemology in translation theory. It also encouraged greater interest in the ordinary uses of language in dialogue and helped to undermine false confidence in the reliability of natural language. A number of psychological insights about translating have been contributed by Ladmiral (1972), who has treated a variety of psychological factors which  influence the ways in which linguistic and cultural elements in communication are processed by the mind. And Lambert (1978) has distinguished two different types of bilingualism based on a speaker’s degree of integration of the respective language codes. This should prove very useful in understanding certain marked differences in the manner in which translators and interpreters perform. The communicative perspective The volume From One Language to Another (de Waard and Nida, 1986) reflects the importance of a number of basic elements in communication theory, namely, source, message, receptor, feedback, noise, setting, and medium. It also treats the processes of encoding and decoding of the original communication and compares these with the more complex series in the translation process. Linguists working in the field of sociolinguistics, e. g. Labov (1972), Hymes (1974), and Gumperz (1982), have made particularly important contributions to understanding principles of translating which focus upon various processes in communication. This relation between sociolinguistics and translation is a very natural one, since sociolinguists deal primarily with language as it is used by society in communicating. The different ways in which societies employ language in interpersonal relations are crucial for anyone concerned with translating. Any approach to translating based on communication theory must give considerable attention to the paralinguistic and extralinguistic features of oral and written messages. Such features as tone of voice, loudness, peculiarities of enunciation, gestures, stance, and eye contact are obviously important in oral communication, but many people fail to realize that analogous factors are also present in written communication, e. g.  style of type, format, quality of paper, and type of binding. For effective impact and appeal, form cannot be separated from content, since form itself carries so much meaning, although in Suzanne Langer’s sense of â€Å"presentational† rather than â€Å"discoursive† truth (1951). This joining of form and content has inevitably led to more serious attention being given to the major functions of language, e. g. informative, expressive, cognitive, imperative, performative, emotive, and interpersonal, including the recognition that the information function is much less prominent than has been traditionally thought. In fact, information probably accounts for less that twenty percent of what goes on in the use of language. This emphasis upon the functions of language has also served to emphasize the importance of discourse structures, also spoken of as â€Å"rhetoric† and â€Å"poetics,† in which important help for translators has come through contributions by Jakobson (1960), Grimes (1972), and Traugott and Pratt (1980). This focus on discourse structures means that any judgment about the validity of a translation must be judged in terms of the extent to which the corresponding source and receptor texts adequately fulfill their respective functions. A minimal requirement for adequacy of a translation would be that the readers would be able to comprehend and appreciate how the original readers of the text understood and possibly responded to it. A maximal requirement for translational adequacy would mean that the readers of the translation would respond to the text both emotively and cognitively in a manner essentially similar to the ways in which the original readers responded. The minimal requirement would apply to texts which are so separated by cultural and linguistic differences as to make equivalent responses practically impossible, e. g. translations into English of West African healing incantations. A maximal requirement would apply to the translation of some of Heinrich Heine’s poems into English. Such requirements of equivalence point to the possibilities and limitations of translating various text types having diverse functions. Mounin (1963) treats this same issue as a matter of â€Å"translatability,† and Reiss (1972) has discussed the communicative aspects of translation by calling attention to the issue of functional equivalence. The sociosemiotic perspective. The central focus in a sociosemiotic perspective on translation is the multiplicity of codes involved in any act of verbal communication. Words never occur without some added paralinguistic or extralinguistic features. And when people listen to a speaker, they not only take in the verbal message, but on the basis of background information and various extralinguistic codes, they make judgments about a speaker’s sincerity, commitment to truth, breadth of learning, specialized knowledge, ethnic background, concern for other people, and personal attractiveness. In fact, the impact of the verbal message is largely dependent upon judgments based on these extralinguistic codes. Most people are completely unaware of such codes, but they are crucial for what people call their â€Å"gut feelings. â€Å"These types of codes are always present in one way or another, whether in oral or written communication, but there are certain other accompanying codes which are optional and to which the verbal message must adjust in varying ways, e. g. the action in a drama, the music of a song, and the multiple visual and auditory features of a multimedia essay. These optional codes often become the dominant factors in a translation, especially when lip synchronization is required in television films. The problem of multiple codes and their relation to the social setting of communication have been helpfully treated by a number of persons, e. g. Eco (1976), Krampen (1979), Merrell (1979), and Robinson (1985). The beginning of a sociosemiotic approach to translating has been undertaken by de Waard and Nida (1986) and by Toury (1980), but a good deal more must be done to understand the precise manner in which the language code relates to other behavioral codcs. In the first place, language must be viewed not as a cognitive construct, but as a shared set of habits using the voice to communicate. This set of habits has developed within society, is transmitted by society, and is learned within a social setting. This implies a clear shift away from abstract and reductionist approaches to language and toward the sociolinguistic contexts of performance in both encoding and decoding messages communicated by multiple codes. This also means that in both encoding and decoding there is a dialogic engagement between source and receptors, both in anticipatory feedback (anticipating how receptors will react) and in actual feedback through verbal and nonverbal codes. In the second place, language must also be viewed as potentially and actually idiosyncratic and sociosyncratic, in the sense that people may create new types of expressions, may construct new literary forms, and may attach new significance to older forms of expression. Discourse, in fact, becomes as much a matter of fashion as any other element of communication, and outstanding communicators can set new standards and initiate new trends.  The advantages of a sociosemiotic approach to translating are to be found in (1) employing a realistic epistemology which can speak relevantly about the real world of everyday experience, since its basis is a triadic relation between sign, referent, and interpretant (the process of interpretation based on the system of signs  and on the dialogic function of society), (2) Being at the cutting edge of verbal creativity, rather than being bound by reductionist requirements which depend on ideal speaker-hearers, who never exist, (3) recognizing the plasticity of language, the fuzzy boundaries of usage, and the ultimate indeterminacy of meaning, which makes language such a frustrating and subtly elegant vehicle for dialogue, and (4) being essentially interdisciplinary in view of the multiplicity of codes. The full implications of sociosemiotic theories and their relation to translation are only now emerging, but they have the potential for developing highly significant insights and numerous practical procedures for more meaningful and acceptable results.

Descartes & Hume Essay

Rene Descartes was a rationalist, means he thought that reason alone, non sensation or escort, was the source to attaining association close the double-dyed(a) truths of the universe, such as mathematics, epistemology, metaphysics and the existence of God. He excluded physics from this list, admitting that cognition of physics tho comes through hump (Descartes). Regardless, his rationalistic epistemology made it so that Descartes could yet accept the truth about something if it was found upon a principle that was clearly and distinctly certain. Innate, a priori have sexledge is fundamental to Descartes philosophy.A priori refers to every knowledge that is attained without sympathetic to sensation (OConnor, Class Notes). Being a rationalist, he completely doubted every sensory(a) experience he had ever had. gumption is ever-changing and sometimes misleads or deceives us, so according to Descartes, trusting in an experience of sensation to provide us with any kind of un iversal truth would be foolish (Descartes). Whereas rationalism directly focuses on reason as being the only focusing to attain knowledge about the world, empiricism concentrates fully on all knowledge being a posteriori, or attained through experience and sensation.In an obvious way, David Humes empiricist epistemology directly contrasted Descartes rationalism, specifically by how he believed military man privy attain knowledge. According to Hume, humans run into the world by experiencing different perceptions impressions/sensations and ideas/thoughts. The totality of force and vivacity of the perception allows humans to say between the two. Impressions and sensations atomic number 18 more exclamatory and lively since they ar a crossway of direct experience. Ideas and thoughts are simply light-colored recreations of the original impressions that were perceived.While Descartes believes that certain ideas are innate, such as the existence of God, Hume absolutely denies th e possibility of innate ideas. He claims that humans could never fully know or comprehend anything beyond our impressions. If an impression is not perceived, then it kittynot be acknowledged. Since our knowledge is check to the impressions we perceive, we have no real way of comprehending causality, instead it is often confused with correlation. source and effect events tend to occur in close temporal order, but that does not mean we can know whether those events are intrinsically related or not.Instead, we can only place our faith in the customs and habits of human life. Oppositely, Descartes believed we gain knowledge a priori, and we can only know that which we have clear and distinct defense for. In order to justify what we know, we cannot prayer to anything except for reason. Lastly, we must judge those confirm ideas by applying Descartes specific and logical mode of reflection. Thusly, by accepting Descartes method, the universal and eternal truths of the world can be k nown.

Arthur Andersen’s Legal Ethical Issues

Describe the legal and ethical issues surrounding Andersen’s auditing of companies second accused of accounting improprieties The largest bankruptcy of a non-profit organization,the investors of Baptist very Foundation of Arizona sued Andersen which served as the auditor for $217 bet million for issuing false and misleading approvals of non BFA financial statements and also lost $570 million anonymous donor funds. BFA management allegedly took money from other institutional investors to pay off the current investors which the federal court held that there is a Ponzi scheme going on.Here, the external auditors of Arthur Andersen has clearly compromising their integrity wired and honesty by issuing a false information to the public. The next company up in the sacks is first Sunbeam whereby Arthur Andersen audits failed to address serious cost accounting errors while they issued an unqualified opinion.Unlike Enron, he is not bankrupt.4 half billion earnings. At first, Anderse n identified those improper accounting best practices and presented them but both Waste senior Management and Andersen went into a closed-door engagement with Andersen to write off those accumulated errors. Here there is a Self-Interest threat.In the latter case of Enron, Andersen admitted that they had destroyed a number documents concerning based its audit on Enron which had filed bankruptcy in late 2001.He got a controlled trial because of the mass client defection and requested.

S.Arthur Andersen what was among the accounting firms on earth."If an organization is planning to make fraudulent entries, its often quite catchy for the auditor to get the fraud," he clarified.Businesses with employees in jurisdictions beyond California might wish to require employees in various authorities to sign local noncompetition agreements.

"Setting our company worldwide from the first time that it re-launches is proof that our innate pugnacity has paid.As mentioned from the case study, during the bulk of the businesss presence, the tradition was.Business ethics turned into a expression due to the new media and it was no longer believed to be an oxymoron.In reality, an audits caliber is unobservable.

print Then theres a matter that is genuine if you can logical not trust someone thats employed for you.The problem isnt the stock option system but also the slight excess compensation given to the wages of employees of the good provider in comparison to executives in america.A.My editorial comment is simpleit looks really pricey.